Serologic Evidence of Exposure to West Nile Virus among Humans in Ibadan, Southwestern Nigeria
Keywords:
Humans, anti-WNV antibody, prevalence rate, undifferentiated febrile illness, southwestern Nigeria
Abstract
Background: Cases of fever without diagnoses of malaria and/or typhoid are usually regarded as undifferentiated febrile illness (UFI) in Nigeria. We studied the contribution of WNV (an arbovirus) to UFI in humans in southwestern Nigeria.
Materials and methods: Sera from 188 consenting humans visiting two health care facilities in Ibadan, and 25 horse grooms from Lagos and Ibadan were screened for WNV antibodies by cELISA and a subset by PRNT. Pertinent demographic/clinical data were collected and blood samples screened for Plasmodium spp, Salmonella typhi and S. paratyphi antibodies. Student’s t-test and binary logistic regression were used for data analysis.
Results: Overall, 156 participants (73.2%, 95% CI: 67.3-79.2 [n=213]) were positive for WNV antibodies. Being clinically ill was associated (p=0.001) with WNV seropositivity while “active” and “non-active” participants had comparable (p=0.21) seroprevalence of 74.6% and 62.5%, respectively. Forty-five percent (18/40) of febrile participants had WNV antibodies only, thereby accounting for UFI. The 18-66 year olds had higher (75.8%) seroprevalence than those ≤ 17 years (47.4%) while seropositivity obtained for the horse grooms (56.0%) was significantly lower than for the remaining 188 individuals (75.5%). Participants were mostly exposed to WNV (75.5%) than Plasmodium (33.5%) and S. typhi (39.9%) while PRNT showed that 10.5% of tested humans had protective WNV antibodies.
Conclusions: This study revealed serologic evidence of exposure of the participants to WNV and contribution of the virus (or related flaviviruses) to UFI in the study area. High prevalence of the antibodies indicates endemicity of southwestern Nigeria for WNV.Humans
References
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2. Lim PY, Behr MJ, Chadwick CM, Shi PY, Bernard KA. Keratinocytes are cell targets of West Nile virus in vivo. J Virol, 2011; 85(10): 5197–5201.
3. Qian F, Thakar J, Yuan X, Nolan M, Murray KO, Lee WT, et al. Immune Markers Associated with Host Susceptibility to Infection with West Nile Virus. Viral Immunol, 2014; 27(2):39-47.
4. Lanciotti RS, Roehrig JT, Deubel V, Smith J, Parker M, Steele K, et al. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science, 1999; 286: 2333–2337.
5. Sotelo E, Gutierrez-Guzmán AV, del Amo A, Llorente F, El-Harrak M, Pérez-Ramírez E, et al. Pathogenicity of two recent Western Mediterranean West Nile virus isolates in a wild bird species indigenous to Southern Europe: the red-legged partridge. Vet Res, 2011; 42:11.
6. Barakat AJ, Reese DJ, Barbey-Morel C, Evans C. West Nile virus disease also affects children. Case Rep Clin Pract Rev, 2004; 5:269-272.
7. Centre for Food Security and Public health [CFSPH]. West Nile Virus Infection. 2009; Available from: www.cfsph.iastate.edu/IICAB/
8. Smithburn KC, Hughes TP, Burke AW, Paul JH. A neurotropic virus isolated from the blood of a native of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 1940; 20: 471-492.
9. Work TH, Hurlbut HS, Taylor RM. Indigenous wild birds of the Nile Delta as potential West Nile virus circulating reservoirs. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 1955; 4(5):872-888.
10. Hubalek Z. and Halouzka J. West Nile fever - a re-emerging mosquito-borne viral disease in Europe. Emerg Infect Dis, 1999; 5(5):643-50.
11. Murgue B, Zeller H, Deubel V. The ecology and epidemiology of West Nile virus in Africa, Europe and Asia. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol, 2002; 267:195-221.
12. Hubalek Z. European experience with the West Nile virus ecology and epidemiology: could it be relevant for the New World? Viral Immunol, 2000; 13 (4):415-426.
13. McIntosh, B. M. and Jupp, P. G. Ecological studies on West Nile virus in southern Africa. In: St. George TD, Kay BH, eds. Arbovirus Research in Australia, Proceedings from the 3rd Symposium, 15-17 February 1982: 82-84.
14. Baba, M.M., Saron, M-F, Diop, O., Mathiot, C., Adeniji, J.A., Olaleye, O. D. West Nile Virus in Mosquitoes and Febrile Patients in a Semi-arid Zone, Nigeria. J Am Sc, 2006; 2(2):28-34.
15. Baba M, Logue CH, Oderinde B, Abdulmaleek H, Williams J, Lewis J, et al. Evidence of arbovirus co-infection in suspected febrile malaria and typhoid patients in Nigeria. J Infect Dev Ctries, 2013; 7(1):051-059.
16. Olaleye OD, Oladosu LA, Omilabu SA, Baba SS, Fagbami AH. Complement fixing antibodies against arboviruses in horses at Lagos, Nigeria. Rev Elev Med Vet Pays Trop, 1989; 42(3):321-325.
17. Olaleye OD, Omilabu SA, Ilomechina EN, Fagbami AH. A survey for haemagglutination-inhibiting antibody to West Nile Virus in human and animal sera in Nigeria. Comp Immunol Microbiol and Infect Dis, 1990; 13(1): 35-39.
18. Gruszynski,K. R. The epidemiology of West Nile virus in Louisiana. Department of Pathobiological Sciences, the School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Louisiana, USA. 2006; PhD thesis.
19. WHO. Japanese Encephalitis Vaccines: WHO position paper – February 2015. WHO Weekly Epidemiological Record, 2015; 9(90): 69-88.
20. Spataro P, Scoglio M.E., Di Pietro A., Chirico C., Visalli G., MacrÌ B. et al. Seroprevalence study on the diffusion of the West Nile Virus among blood donors, healthcare workers, jockeys, rooms and fowlers, veterinary surgeons and hunters in Messina (Italy). J Prev Med Hyg, 2008; 49: 22-25.
21. Opara AU, Nnodim JK, Oluwafemi BE, Nwachukwu MI. Co-infection of malaria and typhoid fever among patients in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. Global Res J Sc, 2011; 1: 5 – 8.
22. Sule WF, Oluwayelu DO, Adedokun RAM, Rufai N, McCracken F, Mansfield KL, et al. High Seroprevelance of West Nile Virus Antibodies Observed in Horses from Southwestern Nigeria. Vector-Borne Zoon Dis, 2015; 15(3): 218-220.
23. WHO. Guidelines for HIV surveillance among tuberculosis patients. WHO/HTM/TB/2004.339; WHO/HIV/2004.06, 2nd Edn. 2004; Geneva, Switzerland.
24. Niang, L, Winn, T, Rusil, B N. Practical issues in calculating the sample size for prevalence studies. Arch Orofacial Sci, 2006; 1: 9-14.
25. WHO. Basic Malaria Microscopy: Part I, Learner’s Guide. 2nd Edition. 2010; Geneva, Switzerland. pp 1-88.
26. Mansfield KL, Horton DL, Johnson N, Barrett ADT, Smith DJ, Galbraith SE, et al. Flavivirus-induced antibody cross-reactivity. J Gen Virol, 2011; 92:2821-2829.
27. Siegrist, C-A. Vaccine immunology In Vaccines (6th Edition), Plotkin, S.A., Orenstein, W.A. and Offit, P.A. (Editors). Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, USA, 2013; pp 17-36.
28. Couissinier-Paris, P. West Nile virus in Europe and Africa: still minor pathogen, or potential threat to public health?Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie Exotique, 2006; 99(5): 348-354.
29. Baba, S. S., NNnadi, O. D., Hamman, K. D., Saidu, A., El-Yuguda, A. and Oderinde, B. S. Preliminary Study on the Prevalence of West Nile Virus Antibody among Horses, Donkeys and Camels in Borno State, Nigeria. J Applied Virol, 2014; 3(2):39-45.
30. Adeleke, M.A., Mafiana, C.F., Idowu, A.B., Adekunle M.F. and Sam-Wobo, S.O. Mosquito larval habitats and public health implications in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. Tanzania J Hlth Res, 2008; 10(2):103-107.Uneke CJ, Ogbu PUI, Anyanwu GI, Njoku MO, Idoko JH. Prevalence of hepatitis B surface antigen among blood donors and HIV-infected patients in Jos, Nigeria. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz Rio de Janerio, 2005; 100(1): 13-16.
31. Hoffman, J.E. and Paschal, K.A. Functional Outcomes of Adult Patients with West Nile Virus Admitted to a Rehabilitation Hospital. J Geriatric Phys Ther, 2013; 36:55-62.
32. RodrÕguez, M. L. G., Rodriguez D. R. R., Blitvich, B. J., Lopez, M. A. R., Ferna ́ndez-Salas, I., Jimenez, J. R. et al. Serologic Surveillance for West Nile Virus and Other Flaviviruses in Febrile Patients, Encephalitic Patients and Asymptomatic Blood Donors in Northern Mexico. Vector-Borne Zoon Dis, 2010; 10(2): 151-157.
33. WHO. Vector Control: Methods for use by individuals and communities. Geneva, Switzerland. 1997; pp 6-19.
34. El Rhaffouli H, Lahlou-Amine I, Lotfi C, Laraqui A, Bajjou T, Fassi-Fihri, O. et al. Serological evidence of West Nile Virus infection among humans in the southern Provinces of Morocco. J Infect Dev Ctries, 2013; 7(12):999-1002.
35. Solomon, T., Ooi, M. M., Beasley, D.W.C. and Mallewa, M. West Nile encephalitis. Brit Med J, 2003, 326: 865–869.
36. Stiasny K, Aberle SW and Heinz FX. Retrospective identification of human cases of West Nile virus infection in Austria (2009 to 2010) by serological differentiation from Usutu and other flavivirus infections. EuroSurveill. 2013; 18(43): pii=20614.
37. Wang W, Sarkodie F, Danso K, Addo-Yobo E, Owusu-Ofori S, Allain I-P. et al. Seroprevalence of West Nile Virus in Ghana. Viral Immunol, 2009; 22(1): 17-22.
38. Opaleye OO, Olawumi BG Odewale GB Ojo JA. Absence of Serological Evidence of West Nile Virus in Blood Donors in South Western Nigeria. Sudan J Med Sci, 2014; 9(4): 235-238.
39. Roehrig, J.T., Nash, D., Maldin, B., Labowitz, A., Martin, D.A., Lanciotti, R.S. et al. Persistence of Virus-Reactive Serum Immunoglobulin M Antibody in Confirmed West Nile Virus Encephalitis Cases. Emerg Infect Dis, 2003; 9(3): 376-379.
40. Sabre A and Farricielli L. Fever of Unknown Origin in a Patient with Confirmed West Nile Virus Meningoencephalitis. Case Reports in Infectious Diseases, 2014. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/120709
41. Pourrut X, Nkoghé D, Paweska J, Leroy E. First serological evidence of West Nile virus in human rural populations of Gabon. Virol, 2010; J7:132.
42. Sule, W. F. Surveillance for West Nile virus in Horses, Humans and Mosquitoes in Southwest Nigeria. Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. 2016; PhD thesis.
43. Komar N., West Nile viral encephalitis. Rev. Sci. Tech. 19 (2000) 166–176.
44. World Health Organization. World malaria situation in 1990. WHO Weekly Epidemiol Rec 1992; 67: 161-167.
